Energy production in glycolysis (EMF pathway)

•  In aerobic conditions there is a net gain of 8 ATP and in anaerobic conditions, there is net gain of only 2 ATP. In aerobic conditions, pyruvic acid is end product. In anaerobic conditions, lactic acid is the end product.
• Enzyme enolase of glycolysis is inhibited by fluoride.
• Mammalian erythrocytes metabolizes glucose by glycolysis only since the enzymes required for the oxidation of pyruvate are not present in them.
• Citric acid cycle (Kreb's cycle) is the aerobic pathway and follows the anaerobic path from pyruvic acid stage.
• Starting point for Kreb's cycle conventionally starts with the formation of citrate by the condensation of oxaloacetate with acetate, both of which can be formed from pyruvate. Thus conversion of pyruvate to acetate is an obligatory step in the utilization of carbohydrate by this pathway.
• All enzymes involved in Kreb's cycle are located in the mitochondria.
• Number of ATP formed from one Kreb's cycle is 30.
• Number of ATP formed from one mole of acetyle CoA is 12.
• Total energy output from glucose in aerobic pathway is 38 ATP. In practise, only 36 ATP are available since & ATP are invloved in glycerophosphate shunt.
• Isocitrate dehydrogenase is a regulatory enzyme in citric acid cycle.
• The formation of succinyl COA succinic acid is the only step in citric acid cycle resulting in substrate phosphorylation. It is catalysed by "succinate thiokinase".
• Formation of glucose and glycogen from non-carbohydrate sources is called "gluconeogenesis".
• During starvation, the chief amino acid transported from muscle to liver is "alanine". This is converted to pyruvate and the pyruvate is converted into glucose.
• The mechanisms involved in gluconeogenesis are reversal of glycolysis and Kreb’s cycle. Some of the amino acids involved in gluconeogenesis is tabulated.

Important mucopolysaccharides

1. Hyaluronic acid - Connective tissue and cartilage

2. Chondroitin sulphate - Cartilage

3. Keratin sulphate – Cornea

 Strongest acid in the body is heparin.